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CHARLES L. SOUVAY.
Transcribed by Douglas J. Potter
References pertaining to this website:
Auroch (Unicorn)
Behemoth
Demons
Dragons
Lamia
Leviathan
The Bible makes no
pretensions to science; we must not therefore expect to meet in its pages
with any kind of elaborate classification, whether zoological or otherwise.
The sacred books, on the other hand, were composed by, and for a people
almost exclusively given to husbandry and pastoral life, hence in constant
communication with nature. To such a people references to the animal world,
animal customs, etc., are quite natural, and the more animals abounded in
the country, the more frequent and varied these allusions may be expected to
be. In point of fact, the names of a large number of animals — over a
hundred and twenty species — occur in the Scriptures. A closer examination
of the way in which references to animals are introduced, the frequency of
allusions to certain species, and the date of the documents in which they
are found, may give a fair idea of the conditions of the country at the
different stages of its history. The species, for instance, called in Hebrew
re'em, very probably the aurochs, or wild ox, totally disappeared about the
time of the Babylonian captivity; the wild ass, the lion, and a few others
long ago became extinct in Palestine; other species are now so scarce that
they could hardly afford a familiar subject for illustration. The variety of
animals spoken of in the Bible is remarkable; the ostrich, for instance, a
denizen of the torrid regions, and the camel, of the waterless districts
around Palestine, are mentioned side by side with the roebuck and deer of
the woody summits of Lebanon. This variety, greater probably in Palestine
than in any other country in the same latitude, should be attributed to the
great extremes of elevation and temperature in this small country.
Furthermore, that the Palestinian fauna is not now as rich as it used to be
during the Biblical times, must not be wondered at; the land, now bare, was
then well wooded, especially on the hills east of the Jordan; hence the
changes. Although no regular classification is to be sought for in the
Bible, it is easy to see, however, that the animal creation is there
practically divided into four classes, according to the four different modes
of locomotion; among the animals, some walk, others fly, many are
essentially swimmers, several crawl on the ground. This classification, more
empiric than logical, would not by any means satisfy a modern scientist; it
must be known, however, if we wish fairly to understand the language of the
Scriptures on the matters connected therewith. The first class, the behemôth,
or beasts, in the Biblical parlance, includes all quadrupeds living on the
earth, with the exception of the amphibia and such small animals as moles,
mice, and the like. Beasts are divided into cattle, or domesticated
(behemoth in the strict sense), and beasts of the field, i. e. wild animals.
The fowls, which constitute the second class, include not only the birds,
but also "all things that fly", even if they "go upon four feet", as the
different kinds of locusts. Of the many "living beings that swim in the
water" no particular species is mentioned; the "great whales" are set apart
in that class, while the rest are divided according as they have, or have
not, fins and scales (Lev., xi, 9, 10). The reptiles, or "creeping things",
form the fourth class. References to this class are relatively few; however,
it should be noticed that the "creeping things" include not only the
reptiles properly so called, but also all short-legged animals or insects
which seem to crawl rather than to walk, such as moles, lizards, etc. From a
religious viewpoint, all these animals are divided into two classes, clean
and unclean, according as they can, or cannot, be eaten. We shall presently
give, in alphabetical order, the list of the animals whose names occur in
the Bible; whenever required for the identification, the Hebrew name will be
indicated, as well as the specific term used by naturalists. This list will
include even such names as griffon, lamia, siren or unicorn, which, though
generally applied to fabulous beings, have nevertheless, on account of some
misunderstandings or educational prejudices of the Greek and Latin
translators, crept into the versions, and have been applied to real animals.
(In the following list D.V. stands for Douay Version, A.V. and R.V. for
Authorized and Revised Version respectively.)
ADDAX. — A kind of antelope (antilope addax) with twisted horns; it very
probably corresponds to the dîshõn of the Hebrews and the pygarg of the
divers translations (Deut., xiv, 5).
ADDER. — A poisonous snake of the genus Vipera. The word, unused in the D.V.,
stands in the A.V. for four different Hebrew names of serpents.
ANT. (Prov., vi, 6; xxx, 25). — Over twelve species of ants exist in
Palestine; among them the ants of the genus Atta are particularly common,
especially the atta barbara, of dark colour, and the atta structor, a brown
species. These, with the pheidole megacephala, are, unlike the ants of
northern countries, accustomed to lay up stores of corn for winter use.
Hence the allusions of the wise man in the two above-mentioned passages of
Proverbs.
ANTELOPE. — The word, first applied as a qualification to the gazelle, on
account of the lustre and soft expression of its eye, has become the name of
a genus of ruminant quadrupeds intermediate between the deer and the goat.
Four species are mentioned in the Bible:
(1) the dîshon (D.V. pygarg; Deut., xiv, 5), commonly identified with the
antilope addax;
(2) the çebhî (Deut., xii, 15, etc.; D.V. roe) or gazelle, antilope dorcas;
(3) the the'ô (Deut., xiv, 5; D.V. wild goat; Is., li, 20, D.V. wild ox),
which seems to be the bubale (antilope bubalis); and
(4) the yáhmûr (Deut., xiv, 5), the name of which is given by the Arabs to
the roebuck of Northern Syria and to the oryx (the white antelope, antilope
oryx) of the desert.
APE. — Nowhere in the Bible is the ape supposed to be indigenous to
Palestine. Apes are mentioned with gold, silver, ivory, and peacocks among
the precious things imported by Solomon from Tharsis (III K., x, 22; II
Par., ix, 21).
ASP. — This word, which occurs ten times in D.V., stands for four Hebrew
names:
(1) Péthén [Deut., xxxii, 33; Job, xx, 14, 16; Ps., lvii (Hebr., lviii), 5;
Is., xi, 8]. From several allusions both to its deadly venom (Deut., xxxii,
33), and to its use by serpent-charmers [Ps., lvii (Hebr., lviii), 5, 6], it
appears that the cobra (naja aspis) is most probably signified. Safely to
step upon its body, or even linger by the hole where it coils itself, is
manifestly a sign of God's particular protection [Ps., xc (Hebr., xci), 13;
Is., xi, 8]. Sophar, one of Job's friends, speaks of the wicked as sucking
the venom of péthén, in punishment whereof the food he takes shall be turned
within him into the gall of this poisonous reptile (Job, xx, 16, 14).
(2) 'Akhshûbh, mentioned only once in the Hebrew Bible, namely Ps., cxl
(Vulg., cxxxix), 4, but manifestly alluded to in Ps., xiii, 3, and Rom.,
iii, 13, seems to have been one of the most highly poisonous kinds of viper,
perhaps the toxicoa, also called echis arenicola or scytale of the Pyramids,
very common in Syria and North Africa.
(3) Sháhál is also found only once to signify a snake, Ps., xci (Vulg., xc),
13; but what particular kind of snake we are unable to determine. The word
Sháhál might possibly, owing to some copyist's mistake, have crept into the
place of another name now impossible to restore.
(4) çphônî (Is., lix, 5), "the hisser", generally rendered by basilisk in
ID.V. and in ancient translations, the latter sometimes calling it regulus.
This snake was deemed so deadly that, according to the common saying, its
hissing alone, even its look, was fatal. It was probably a small viper,
perhaps a cerastes, possibly the daboia zanthina, according to Cheyne.
ASS. — The ass has always
enjoyed a marked favour above all other beasts of burden in Palestine. This
is evidenced by two very simple remarks. While, on the one hand, mention of
this animal occurs over a hundred and thirty times in Holy Writ; on the
other hand, the Hebrew vocabulary possesses, to designate the ass, according
to its colour, sex, age, etc., a supply of words in striking contrast with
the ordinary penury of the sacred language. Of these various names the most
common is hamôr, "reddish", the hair of the Eastern ass being generally of
that colour. White asses, more rare, were also more appreciated and reserved
for the use of the nobles (Judges, v, 10). The custom was introduced very
early, as it seems, and still prevails, to paint the most shapely and
valuable donkeys in stripes of different colours. In the East the ass is
much larger and finer than in other countries, and in several places the
pedigrees of the best breeds are carefully preserved. Asses have always been
an important item in the resources of the Eastern peoples, and we are
repeatedly told in the Bible about the herds of these animals owned by the
patriarchs (Gen., xii, 16; xxx, 43; xxxvi, 24, etc.), and wealthy Israelites
(I K., ix, 3; 1 Par., xxvii, 30, etc.). Hence the several regulations
brought forth by Israel's lawgiver on this subject: the neighbour's ass
should not be coveted (Exod., xx, 17); moreover, should the neighbour's
stray ass be found, it should be taken care of, and its owner assisted in
tending this part of his herd (Deut., xxii, 3, 4). The ass serves in the
East for many purposes. Its even gait and surefootedness, so well suited to
the rough paths of the Holy Land, made it at all times the most popular of
all the animals for riding in those hilly regions (Gen., xxii, 3; Luke, xix,
30). Neither was it ridden only by the common people, but also by persons of
the highest rank (Judges, v, 10; x, 4; II K., xvii, 23; xix, 26, etc.). No
wonder therefore that Our Lord about to come triumphantly to Jerusalem,
commanded His disciples to bring Him an ass and her colt; no lesson of
humility, as is sometimes asserted, but the affirmation of the peaceful
character of His kingdom should be sought there. Although the Scripture
speaks of "saddling" the ass, usually no saddle was used by the rider; a
cloth spread upon the back of the ass and fastened by a strap was all the
equipment. Upon this cloth the rider sat, a servant usually walking
alongside. Should a family journey, the women and children would ride the
asses, attended by the father (Exod., iv, 20). This mode of travelling has
been popularized by Christian painters, who copied the eastern customs in
their representations of the Holy Family's flight to Egypt. Scores of
passages in the Bible allude to asses carrying burdens; the Gospels, at
least in the Greek text, speak of millstones run by asses (Matt., xviii, 6,
Mark, ix, 41; Luke, xvii, 2); Josephus and the Egyptian monuments teach us
that this animal was used for threshing wheat; finally, we repeatedly read
in the O.T. of asses hitched to a plough (Deut, xxii, 10; Is., xxx, 24,
etc.), and in reference to this custom, the Law forbade ploughing with an ox
and an ass together (Deut., xxii, 10). From Is., xxi, 7, confirmed by the
statements of Greek writers, we learn that part of the cavalry force in the
Persian army rode donkeys; we should perhaps understand from IV K., vii, 7,
that the Syrian armies followed the same practice; but no such custom seems
to have ever prevailed among the Hebrews. With them the ass was essentially
for peaceful use, the emblem of peace, as the horse was the symbol of war.
The flesh of the ass was unclean and forbidden by the Law. In some
particular circumstances, however, no law could prevail over necessity, and
we read that during Joram's reign, when Benadad besieged Samaria, the famine
was so extreme in this city, that the head of an ass was sold for fourscore
pieces of silver (IV K., vi, 25).
ASS'S COLT. — This is more specially the symbol of peace and meek obedience
(John, xii, 15).
ASS, WILD, corresponds in the O.T. to two words, péré' and 'arôdh. Whether
these two names refer to different species, or are, the one, the genuine
Hebrew name, the other, the Aramaic equivalent for the same animal, is
uncertain. Both signify one of the wildest and most untamable animals. The
wild ass is larger and more shapely than the domestic one, and outruns the
fleetest horse. Its untamableness joined to its nimbleness made it a fit
symbol for the wild and plunder-loving Ismael (Gen., xvi, 12). The wild ass,
extinct in western Asia, still exists in central Asia and the deserts of
Africa.
ATTACUS (Lev., xi, 22). — Instead of this Latin word, the A.V. reads
bald-locust. According to the tradition enshrined in the Talmud, the common
truxalis, a locust with a very long smooth head is probably signified.
AUROCHS, or wild ox (urus, bos primigenius), is
undoubtedly the rimu of the Assyrian inscriptions, and consequently
corresponds to the re'em or rêm of the Hebrews. The latter word is
translated sometimes in our D.V. by rhinoceros (Num., xxiii, 22; xxiv, 8;
Deut., xxxiii, 17; Job, xxxix, 9, 10), sometimes by unicorn (Ps., xxi, 22;
xxviii, 6; xci, 11; Is., xxxiv, 7). That the re'em, far from being unicorn,
was a two-horned animal, is suggested by Ps., xxi, 22, and forcibly
evidenced by Deut., xxxiii, 17, where its horns represent the two tribes of
Ephraim and Manasses; that, moreover, it was akin to the domestic ox is
shown from such parallelisms as we find in Ps., xxviii, 6, where we read,
according to the critical editions of the Hebrew text: "The voice of Yahweh
makes Lebanon skip like a bullock, and Sirion like a young re'em"; or Is.,
xxxiv, 7: "And the re'em shall go down with them, and the bulls with the
mighty"; and still more convincingly by such implicit descriptions as that
of Job, xxxix, 9, 10: "Shall the rêm be willing to serve thee, or will he
stay at thy crib? Canst thou bind the rêm with thy thong to plough, or will
he break the clods of the valleys after thee?" These references will be very
clear, the last especially, once we admit the re'em is an almost untamable
wild ox, which one would try in vain to submit to the same work as its
domestic kin. Hence there is very little doubt that in all the
above-mentioned places the word aurochs should be substituted for rhinoceros
and unicorn. The aurochs is for the sacred poets a familiar emblem of
untamed strength and ferocity. It no longer exists in western Asia.
BABOON, a kind of dog-faced, long-haired monkey, dwelling among ruins (gen.
Cynocephalus); it was an object of worship for the Egyptians. Some deem it
to be the "hairy one" spoken of in Is., xiii, 21 and xxxiv, 14, but it is
very doubtful whether it ever existed west of the Euphrates.
BADGER. — No mention of the badger (meles taxus) is found in the D.V.,
whereas the A.V. regularly gives it as the English equivalent for táhásh.
The skin of the táhásh is repeatedly spoken of as used for the outer cover
of the tabernacle and the several pieces of its furniture. The old
translations, and the D.V. after them, understood the word táhásh to mean a
color (violet; Ex., xxv, 5; xxvi, 14; xxxv, 7, 23; xxxvi, 19; Num., iv, 10,
25; Ezech., xvi, 10); but this is a misrepresentation; so also is the
rendering of the A.V.; for though the badger is common in Palestine, yet the
Hebrew name most probably indicates the dugong (halicore hemprichii or
halicore tabernaculi), a very large species of the seal family living in the
Red Sea, the skin of which is used to the present day for such purposes as
those alluded to in the Bible.
BASILISK occurs in the D.V. as an equivalent for several Hebrew names of
snakes:
(1) Péthén (Ps. xc, 13),
the cobra; had the Latin and English translators been more consistent they
would have rendered this Hebrew word here, as in the other places, by asp;
(2) Céphá' and Cíphe 'ônî (Prov., xxiii, 32; Is., xi. 8; xiv, 29; Jer.,
viii, '17;
(3) 'éphe'éh (Is., lix, 5), a kind of viper impossible to determine, or
perhaps the echis arenicola;
(4) flying sãrãph (Is., xiv, 29; xxx, 6), a winged serpent (?), possibly
also a reptile like the draco fimbriatus, which, having long ribs covered
with a fringe-like skin, is able to glide through the air for short
distances.
BAT. — The bat, fourteen species of which still exist in Palestine is
reckoned among unclean "winged things" (Lev., xi, 19; Deut., xiv, 18). Its
abode is generally in dark and desolate places such as ruins and caverns.
BEAR. — The bear spoken of in
the Bible is the ursus syriacus, scarcely different from the brown bear of
Europe. Since the destruction of the forests, it is now rarely seen south of
Lebanon and Hermon, where it is common. Not unfrequently met in the Holy
Land during the O.T. times, it was much dreaded on account of its ferocious
and destructive instincts; to dare it was accordingly a mark of uncommon
courage (I K., xvii, 34-36). Its terror-striking roars and its fierceness,
especially when robbed of its cubs, are repeatedly alluded to.
BEAST, WILD. — The expression occurs twice in the D.V., but much oftener in
the A.V., and R. V., where it is in several places a substitute for the
awkward "beast of the field", the Hebrew name of wild animals at large. The
first time we read of "wild beasts" in the D.V., it fairly stands for the
Hebrew word zîz [Ps. lxxix (Hebr., lxxx), 14], albeit the "singular wild
beast" is a clumsy translation. The same Hebrew word in Ps. xlix, 11, at
least for consistency's sake, should have been rendered in the same manner;
"the beauty of the field" must consequently be corrected into "wild beast".
In Is., xiii, 21, "wild beasts" is an equivalent for the Hebr. Ciyyîm, i. e.
denizens of the desert. This word in different places has been translated in
divers manners: demons (Is., xxxiv, 14), dragons (Ps. lxxiii, 14; Jer., 1,
39); it possibly refers to the hyena.
BEE. — Palestine, according to Scripture, is a land flowing with honey (Ex.,
iii, 8). Its dry climate, its rich abundance, and variety of aromatic
flowers, and its limestone rocks render it particularly adapted for bees. No
wonder then that honey bees, both wild and hived, abound there. All the
different species known by the names of bombus, nomia, andrena, osmia,
megachile, anthophora, are widely spread throughout the country. The hived
honey bee of Palestine, apis fasciata, belongs to a variety slightly
different from ours, characterized by yellow stripes on the abdomen. Wild
bees are said to live not only in rocks [Ps. lxxx (Hebr., lxxxi), 17], but
in hollow trees (I K., xiv, 25), even in dried carcasses (Judges, xiv, 8).
Syrian and Egyptian hives are made of a mash of clay and straw for coolness.
In O.T. times, honey was an article of export (Gen., xliii, 11; Ezech,,
xxvii, 17). Bees are spoken of in Holy Writ as a term of comparison for a
numerous army relentlessly harassing their enemies. Debôrah, the Hebrew name
for bee, was a favourite name for women.
BEETLE, given by A.V. (Lev., xi, 22) as an equivalent for Hebrew, árbéh,
does not meet the requirements of the context: "Hath the legs behind longer
wherewith it hoppeth upon the earth", any more than the bruchus of D.V.,
some species of locust, the locusta migratoria being very likely intended.
BEHEMOTH, is generally translated by "great beasts";
in its wider signification it includes all mammals living on earth, but in
the stricter sense is applied to domesticated quadrupeds at large. However
in Job, xl, 10, where it is left untranslated and considered as a proper
name, it indicates a particular animal. The description of this animal has
long puzzled the commentators. Many of them now admit that it represents the
hippopotamus, so well known to the ancient Egyptians; it might possibly
correspond as well to the rhinoceros.
BIRD. — No other classification of birds than into clean and unclean is
given. The Jews, before the captivity, had no domestic fowls except pigeons
. Although many birds are mentioned, there occur few allusions to their
habits. Their instinct of migration, the snaring or netting them, and the
caging of song birds are referred to.
BIRD, DYED. — So does the English version, Jer., xii, 9, wrongly interpret
the Hebrew 'áyit. which means beast of prey, sometimes also bird of prey.
BIRD, SINGING. — This singing bird of Soph., ii, 14, according to the D.V.,
owes its origin to a mistranslation of the original, which most probably
should be read: "And their voice shall sing at the window"; unless by a
mistake of some scribe, the word qôl, voice, has been substituted for the
name of some particular bird.
BIRD, SPECKLED, Hebrew çãbhûá' (Jer., xii, 9). A much discussed translation.
The interpretation of the English versions, however meaningless it may seem
to some, is supported by the Targum, the Syriac, and St. Jerome. In spite of
these authorities many modern scholars prefer to use the word hyena, given
by the Septuagint and confirmed by Ecclesiasticus, xiii, 22 as well as by
the Arabic (dábúh) and rabbinical Hebrew (çebhôá'), names of the hyena.
BISON, According to several authors, the re'em of the Bible. It belongs to
the same genus as the aurochs, but being indigenous to America (whence its
name, bos americanus), and specifically different from the aurochs, cannot
possibly have been known by the Hebrews.
BITTERN (botháurus vulgaris), a shy, solitary, wading bird related to the
heron and inhabiting the recesses of swamps, where its startling, booming
cry at night gives a frightening impression of desolation. In the D.V.,
bittern stands for Hebr. qã'ãth (Lev., xi, 18; Is., xxxiv, 11; Soph., ii,
14), although by some inconsistency the same Hebrew word is rendered Deut.,
xiv, 17, by cormorant, and Ps. ci (Hebr., cii), 7, by pelican. The pelican
meets all the requirements of all the passages where qã'ãth is mentioned,
and would perhaps be a better translation than bittern.
BLAST certainly, designates, Deut., xxviii, 42, a voracious insect; the
Hebrew çelãçál, "chirping", suggests that the cricket was possibly meant and
might be substituted for blast. In Ps. lxxvii (Hebr., lxxviii), 46, blast
stands for hãsîl, "the destroyer", perhaps the locust in its caterpillar
state, in which it is most destructive.
BOAR, WILD. — The only allusion to this animal is found Ps. lxxix (Hebr.,
lxxx), 14; however, the wild boar was undoubtedly always, as it is now,
common in Palestine, having its lair in the woods, and most destructive to
vineyards.
BRUCHUS. — Though it occurs once (Lev., xi, 22) as an equivalent for Hebrew,
'ârbéh (probably the locusta migratoria), the word bruchus is the regular
interpretation for yéléq, "licker". The Biblical bruchus may be fairly
identified with the beetle, or some insect akin to it. Anyway the yéléq of
Jer., li, 14, 27, should have been rendered in the same manner as everywhere
else.
BUBALE, antilope bubalis, or alcephalus bubalis, which should not be
confounded with the bubale, bos bubalus, is probably signified by the
Hebrew, the'ô, interpreted by the Douay translators, wild goat, in Deut.,
xiv, 5, and wild ox, Is., li, 20. It still exists in Palestine, but was
formerly much more common than now.
BUFFALO (bos bubalus). — So does the D.V. translate the Hebrew, yáhmûr, III
K., iv, 23 (Hebr., I K., v, 3). Being a denizen of marshy and swampy lands,
the buffalo must have been scarcely known by the Hebrews. Moreover, its
coarse, unpleasant smelling flesh seems to exclude the identification with
the animal referred to in the above mentioned passage, where we should
probably read roebuck.
BUFFLE. — Another word for buffalo, D.V., Deut., xiv, 5. According to good
authorities, the oryx, or white antelope, might be here intended, the Hebrew
word yáhmûr possibly meaning, as its Arabic equivalent does, both the
roebuck and the oryx.
BULL. — A symbol of fierce and relentless adversaries [Ps. xxi (Hebr.,
xxii), 13].
BULLOCK. — The bullock, as yet unaccustomed to the yoke, is an image of
Israel's insubordinate mind before he was subdued by the captivity (Jer.,
xxxi, 18).
BUZZARD (Hebr., rã'ah). — Probably the ringtail of D.V. and the glede of A,V.
(Deut., xiv, 13); possibly, through a scribe's error, might be identified
with the kite, dã'ah, of Lev,, xi, 14. The buzzard, three species of which
exist in Palestine, has always been common there.
CALF, One of the most popular representations of the deity among the
Chanaanites. The calf is, in Biblical poetry, a figure for vexing and
pitiless foes [Ps., xxi (Hebr., xxii), 13]. The fatted calf was a necessary
feature, so to say, of a feast dinner.
CAMEL, a prominent domestic animal of the East without the existence of
which life in the Arabian deserts would be impossible. It was perhaps the
first beast of burden applied to the service of man; anyway it is mentioned
as such in the Biblical records as early as the time of Abraham. It
constituted a great element in the riches of the early patriarchs. There are
two species of camel: the one-humped camel (camelus dromedarius), and the
two-humped camel (camelus bactrianus). The camel is used for riding as well
as for carrying loads; its furniture is a large frame placed on the humps,
to which cradles or packs are attached. In this manner was all the
merchandise of Assyria and Egypt transported. But the camel is appreciated
for other reasons: it may be hitched to a wagon or to a plough, and in fact
is not unfrequently yoked together with tIme ass or the ox; the female
supplies abundantly her master with a good milk; camel's hair is woven into
a rough cloth wherewith tents and Cloaks are made; finally its flesh, albeit
coarse and dry, may be eaten. With the Jews, however, the camel was reckoned
among the unclean animals.
CAMELOPARDALUS, occurs only once in the D.V. (Deut., xiv, 5), as a
translation of zémér, The word, a mere transcription of the Latin and the
Greek, is a combination of the names of the camel and the leopard, and
indicates the giraffe. But this translation, as well as that of the A.V.
(chamois), is doubtless erroneous; neither the giraffe nor the chamois ever
lived in Palestine. The wild sheep or mouflon, which still lingers in Cyprus
and Arabia Petrala, is very likely intended.
CANKERWORM, the locust in its larva state, in which it is most voracious. So
does A.V. render the Hebrew, gãzám; the word palmerworm, given by the D.V.
seems better.
CAT. — Mention of this animal occurs only once in the Bible, namely Bar.,
vi, 21. The original text of Baruch being lost, we possess no indication as
to what the Hebrew name of the cat may have been. Possibly there was not
any; for although the cat was very familiar to the Egyptians, it seems to
have been altogether unknown to the Jews, as well as to the Assyrians and
Babylonians, even to the Greeks and Romans before the conquest of Egypt.
These and other reasons have led some commentators to believe that the word
cat, in the above cited place of Baruch, might not unlikely stand for
another name now impossible to restore.
CATTLE. — Very early in the history of mankind, animals were tamed and
domesticated, to be used in agriculture, for milk, for their flesh, and
especially for sacrifices. Many words in Hebrew expressed the different ages
and sexes of cattle, West of the Jordan the cattle were generally stall-fed
; in the plains and hills south and east they roamed in a half-wild state;
such were the most famous "bulls of Basan".
CERASTES (Hebr., shephîphõn) should be substituted in D.V. for the
colourless "serpent", Gen., xlix, 17. The identification of the shephîphõn
with the deadly horned cerastes (cerastes hasselquistii or vipera cerastes)
is evidenced by the Arabic name of the latter (shúffon), and its customs in
perfect agreement with the indications of the Bible. The cerastes, one of
the most venomous of snakes, is in the habit of coiling itself in little
depressions such as camels' footmarks, and suddenly darting on any passing
animal.
CHAMELEON (Hebr., kôâh). — Mentioned Lev., xi, 30, with the mole (Hebr.,
tínshéméth). In spite of the authority of the ancient translations, it is
now generally admitted that the tínshéméth is the chameleon, very common in
Palestine; whereas the kôâh is a kind of large lizard, perhaps the land
monitor (psammosaurus scincus).
CHAMOIS (antilope rupicapra) is now totally unknown in western Asia, where
it very probably never existed. The opinion of those who see it in the
Hebrew zémér (Deut., xiv, 5) should consequently be entirely discarded (see
Camelopardalus).
CHARADRION (Hebr., anãphah, Lev., xi, 19; Deut., xiv, 18) would be the
plover; but it rather stands here for the heron, all the species of which
(this is the sense of the expression "according to its kind"), numerous in
Palestine, should be deemed unclean.
CHEROGRILLUS (Lev., xi, 5; Deut., xiv, 7), a mere transliteration of the
Greek name of the porcupine, corresponds to the Hebrew shãphãn, translated,
Ps. ciii (Hebr., civ), 18, by irchin, and Prov., xxx, 26, by rabbit. As St.
Jerome noticed it, the shãphãn is not the porcupine, but a very peculiar
animal of about the same size, dwelling among the rocks, and in holes, and
called in Palestine "bear-rat", on account of some resemblance with these
two quadrupeds. We call it coney, or daman (hyrax syriacus). Its habit of
lingering among the rocks is alluded to, Ps. ciii, 18; its wisdom and
defencelessness, Prov., xxx, 24-26. "It cannot burrow, for it has no claws,
only nails half developed ; but it lies in holes in the rocks, and feeds
only at dawn and dusk, always having sentries posted, at the slightest
squeak from which the whole party instantly disappears. The coney is not a
ruminant (cf. Lev., xi, 5), but it sits working its jaws as if re-chewing.
It is found sparingly in most of the rocky districts, and is common about
Sinai" (Tristram).
COBRA (naja aspis), most likely the deadly snake called péthén by the
Hebrews, found in Palestine and Egypt and used by serpent-charmers.
COCHINEAL (coccus ilicis). — A hemiptera homoptera insect very common on the
Syrian holm-oak, from the female of which the crimson dye (kermes) is
prepared. The complete name in Hebrew is equivalent to "scarlet insect", the
"insect" being not unfrequently omitted in the translations.
COCK, HEN. — Domestic poultry are not mentioned till after the captivity. No
wonder, consequently, that the three times we meet with the word cock in the
D.V. it is owing to a misinterpretation of the primitive text.
(1) Job, xxxviii, 36, the
word sékhwi means soul, heart: "Who hath put wisdom in the heart of man?
and who gave his soul understanding?"
(2) Prov., xxx, 31, zãrzîr should be translated as "hero".
(3) Is., xxii, 17, where the word gébhér, great, strong man, has been
rendered according to some rabbinical conceptions.
In Our Lord's time domestic poultry, introduced from India through Persia,
had become common, and their well-known habits gave rise to familiar
expressions, and afforded good and easy illustrations (Mark, xiii, 35;
xiv, 30, etc.). Jesus Christ compared His care for Jerusalem to that of a
hen for her brood.
COCKATRICE. — A fabulous
serpent supposed to be produced from a cock's egg brooded by a serpent; it
was alleged that its hissing would drive away all other serpents, and that
its breath, even its look, was fatal. The word is used in A.V. as the
regular equivalent for Hebrew, çíphe'ônî.
COLT. — See ASS'S COLT (sup.).
CONEY. — See Cherogrillus (sup.).
CORAL, Hebrew, rãmôth, should probably be substituted, Job, xxviii, 18, for
"eminent things", and Ezech., xxvii, 16, for "silk" in the D.V. The coral
dealt with at Tyre was that of the Red Sea or even of the Indian Ocean;
coral seems to have been scarcely known among the Jews.
CORMORANT (Lev., xi, 17; Deut., xiv, 17), very frequently met with on the
coasts, rivers, and lakes of Palestine, probably corresponds to the shãlãk
of the Hebrew, although this name, which means "the plunger", might be
applied to some other plunging bird.
COW. — See CATTLE (sup.).
CRANE (grus cinerea). — The word does not occur in D.V., but seems the best
translation of Hebrew, 'ãghûr, read in two passages: Is., xxxviii, 14, and
Jer., viii, 7, where its loud voice and migratory instincts are alluded to.
There is little doubt that the two above indicated places of D.V., where we
read "swallow", should be corrected.
CRICKET, a good translation for Hebr., çelãçál, "chirping", which besides
the feature suggested by the etymology, is described Deut., xxviii, 42, as a
voracious insect. See BLAST (sup.).
CROCODILE. — We do not read this word in any other place than Lev., xi, 29 (D.V.),
where it corresponds to the Hebrew, çãb; the animal is, nevertheless,
oftener spoken of in the Holy Books under cover of several metaphors: ráhâb,
"the proud" (Is., li, 9); tánnîn, "the stretcher" (Ezech., xxix, 3);
líweyãthãn (leviathan) [Ps. lxxiii (Hebr., lxxiv), 14; Job, xl, 20, xli,
25]. See DRAGON (inf.). The crocodile (crocodilus vulgaris) is still found
in great numbers, not only in the upper Nile, but also in Palestine. A
remarkable description of the crocodile has been drawn by the author of the
Book of Job. He depicts the difficulty of capturing, snaring, or taming him,
his vast size, his impenetrable scales, his flashing eyes, his snorting, and
his immense strength. Dreadful as he is, the crocodile was very early
regarded and worshipped as a deity by the Egyptians. He is, in the Bible,
the emblem of the people of Egypt and their Pharao, sometimes even of all
Israel's foes.
CUCKOO, according to some, would be the bird called in Hebrew shâhâph (Lev.,
xi, 16; Deut., xiv, 15), and there reckoned among the unclean birds. Two
species, the cuculus canorus, and the oxylophus glandarius live in the Holy
Land; however there is little probability that the cuckoo is intended in the
mentioned passages, where we should perhaps see the shear-water and the
various species of sea-gulls.
DABOIA ZANTHINA, See Basilisk (sup.).
DAMAN. — See Cherogrillus (sup.).
DEER. — (Hebr., 'áyyãl). Its name is frequently read in the Scriptures, and
its habits have afforded many allusions or comparisons, which fact supposes
that the deer was not rare in Palestine. Its handsome form, its swiftness,
its shyness, the love of the roe for her fawns, are alluded to; it seems
from Prov., v, 19 and some other indirect indications that the words 'áyyãl
and 'áyyãlah (deer and hind) were terms of endearment most familiar between
lovers.
DEMONS (Is., xxxiv, 14). — So does D. V, translate
çíyyîm; it is certainly a mistake. The word at issue is generally believed
to refer to the hyena (hyœna striata), still found everywhere in caves and
tombs, So also is the word "devils" of Bar., iv, 35, We possess no longer
the Hebrew text of the latter; but it possibly contained the same word;
anyway, "hyena" is unquestionably a far better translation than the mere
meaningless "devils".
DIPSAS. — The D, V., following the Vulgate (Deut., viii, 15) thereby means a
serpent whose bite causes a mortal thirst ; but this interpretation seems to
come from a misunderstanding suggested by the Septuagint; the original
writer most likely intended there to mean "drought", as the A.V. rightly
puts it, and not any kind of serpent.
DOG. — The dog in the East does not enjoy the companionship and friendship
of man as in the western countries. Its instinct has been cultivated only in
so far as the protecting of the flocks and camps against wild animals is
concerned. In the towns and villages it roams in the streets and places, of
which it is the ordinary scavenger; packs of dogs in a half-wild state are
met with in the cities and are not unfrequently dangerous for men. For this
reason the dog has always been, and is still looked upon with loathing and
aversion, as filthy and unclean. With a very few exceptions, whenever the
dog is spoken of in the Bible (where it is mentioned over forty times), it
is with contempt, to remark either its voracious instincts, or its
fierceness, or its loathsomeness; it was regarded as the emblem of lust, and
of uncleanness in general. As the Mohammedans, to the present day, term
Christians "dogs", so did the Jews of old apply that infamous name to
Gentiles.
DOVE (Hebr., yônah). — Though distinguishing it from tôr, the turtle-dove,
the Jews were perfectly aware of their natural affinity and speak of them
together. The dove is mentioned in the Bible oftener than any other bird
(over fifty times); this comes both from the great number of doves flocking
in Palestine, and of the favour they enjoy among the people. The dove is
first spoken of in the record of the flood (Gen., viii, 8-12); later on we
see that Abraham offered up some in sacrifice, which would indicate that the
dove was very early domesticated. In fact several allusions are made to
dove-cotes, with their "windows" or latticed openings. But in olden times as
well as now, besides the legions of pigeons that swarm around the villages,
there were many more rock-doves, "doves of the valleys", as they are
occasionally termed (Ezech., vii, 16; Cant., ii, 14; Jer., xlviii, 28), that
filled the echoes of the mountain gorges with the rustling of their wings.
The metallic lustre of their plumage, the swiftness of their flight, their
habit of sweeping around in flocks, their plaintive coo, are often alluded
to by the different sacred writers. The dark eye of the dove, encircled by a
line of bright red skin, is also mentioned; its gentleness and innocence
made it the type of trust and love, and, most naturally, its name was one of
the most familiar terms of endearment. Our Lord spoke of the dove as a
symbol of simplicity; the sum of its perfections made it a fitting emblem
for the Holy Spirit.
DRAGON, a word frequently found in the translations of
the Bible as substitute, so it seems, for other names of animals that the
translators were unable to identify. It stands indeed for several Hebrew
names:
(1) thán (Job, xxx, 29;
Is., xxxiv, 13; xxxv, 7; xliii, 20; Jer., ix, 11; x, 22; xiv, 6; xlix, 33;
li, 37; Mich., i, 8; Mal., i, 3), unquestionably meaning a denizen of
desolate places, and generally identified with the jackal;
(2) tánnîm, in a few passages with the sense of serpent [Deut., xxxii, 33;
Ps., xc (Hebr., xci), 13; Dan., xiv, 22-27), in others most likely
signifying the crocodile [Ps., lxxiii (Hebr., lxxiv), 13; Is., li, 9;
Ezech., xxix, 3], or even a sea-monster (Ezech., xxxii, 2), such as a
whale, porpoise, or dugong, as rightly translated Lam., iv, 3, and as
probably intended Ps., cxlviii, 7;
(3) líweyãthãn (leviathan), meaning both the crocodile [Ps., lxxiii (Hebr.,
lxxiv), 14] and sea-monster [Ps. ciii (Hebr., civ), 26];
(4) çiyyim (Ps. lxxiii, 14; Jer., 1, 39), which possibly means the hyena.
Other places, such as Esth., x, 7; xi, 6; Ecclus., xxv, 23, can be neither
traced back to a Hebrew original, nor identified with sufficient
probability. The author of the Apocalypse repeatedly makes mention of the
dragon, by which he means "the old serpent, who is called the Devil and
Satan, who seduceth the whole world" (Apoc., xii, 9, etc.). Of the
fabulous dragon fancied by the ancients, represented as a monstrous winged
serpent, with a crested head and enormous claws, and regarded as very
powerful and ferocious, no mention whatever is to be found in the Bible.
The word dragon, consequently, should really be blotted out of our Bibles,
except perhaps Is., xiv, 29 and xxx, 6, where the draco fimbriatus is
possibly spoken of. See BASILISK, 4 (sup.).
DROMEDARY. — The word so
rendered, Is., lx, 6, signifies rather a swift and finely bred camel.
DUGONG. — See BADGER (sup.).
EAGLE So is generally rendered the Hebrew, néshér, but there is a doubt as
to whether the eagle or some kind of vulture is intended. It seems even
probable that the Hebrews did not distinguish very carefully these different
large birds of prey, and that all are spoken of as though they were of one
kind. Anyway, four species of eagles are known to live in Palestine: aquila
chrysœtos, aquila nœvia, aquila heliaca, and circœtos gallicus. Many
allusions are made to the eagle in Scripture: its inhabiting the dizziest
cliffs for nesting, its keen sight, its habit of congregating to feed on the
slain, its swiftness, its longevity, its remarkable care in training its
young, are often referred to (see in particular Job, xxxix, 27-30). When the
relations of Israel with their neighbours became more frequent, the eagle
became, under the pen of the Jewish prophets and poets, an emblem first of
the Assyrian, then of the Babylonian, and finally of the Persian kings.
ELEPHANT. — We learn from Assyrian inscriptions that before the Hebrews
settled in Syria, there existed elephants in that country, and
Tiglath-Pileser I tells us about his exploits in elephant hunting. We do not
read, however, of elephants in the Bible until the Machabean times. True,
III Kings speaks of ivory, or "elephants' teeth", as the Hebrew text puts
it, yet not as indigenous, but as imported from Ophir. In the post-exilian
times, especially in the books of the Machabees, elephants are frequently
mentioned; they were an important element in the armies of the Seleucides.
These animals were imported either from India or from Africa.
ERICIUS, a Latin name of the hedgehog, preserved in the D.V. as a
translation of the Hebrew word qíppôdh (Is., xiv, 23; xxxiv, 11; Soph., ii,
14, the word urchin has been used) and qîppôz (Is., xxxiv, 15). The above
identification of the qíppôdh is based both on the Greek rendering and the
analogy between this Hebrew word and the Talmudic (qúppádh), Syriac (qufdô'),
Arabic (qúnfúd) and Ethiopian (qinfz) names of the hedgehog. Several
scholars, however, discard this identification, because the hedgehog,
contrary to the qíppôdh, lives neither in marshes nor ruins, and has no
voice. The bittern meets all the requirements of the texts where the qíppôdh
is mentioned. It should be noticed nevertheless that hedgehogs are far from
rare in Palestine. As to the qîppôz of Is., xxxiv, 15, read qíppôdh by some
Hebrew Manuscripts, and interpreted accordingly by the Septuagint, Vulgate
and the versions derived therefrom, its identity is a much discussed
question. Some, arguing from the authorities just referred to, confound it
with the qíppôdh, whereas others deem it to be the arrow-snake; but besides
that no such animal as arrow-snake is known to naturalists, the context
seems to call for a bird.
EWE. — The Hebrew language, generally poor, shows a remarkable opulence when
there is question of all things connected with pastoral life. Six names at
least, with their feminines, express the different stages of development of
the sheep. Its domestication goes back to the night of time, so that the
early traditions enshrined in the Bible speak of the first men as shepherds.
Whatever may be thought of this point, it is out of question that from the
dawn of historical times down to our own, flocks have constituted the staple
of the riches of the land. The ewe of Palestine is generally the ovis
laticaudata, the habits of which, resembling those of all other species of
sheep, are too well known to be here dwelt upon. Let it suffice to notice
that scores of allusions are made in the Holy Books to these habits as well
as to the different details of the pastoral life.
FALCON. — See HAWK (inf.).
FALLOW-DEER (cervus dama or dama vulgaris) believed by some to be signified
by Hebrew, yáhmûr. The fallow-deer is scarce in the Holy Land and found only
north of Mount Thabor. If it is mentioned at all in the Bible, it is
probably ranked among the deer.
FAWN (Prov., v, 19), for Hebrew, yá'alah, feminine of yã'el which should be
regularly, as it is in several passages, rendered by wild goat (ibex
syriacus). See GOAT, WILD (inf.).
FAUN. — An equivalent in D.V. (Jer., 1, 39), after St. Jerome, for Hebrew, 'íyyîm.
St. Jerome explains that they were wild beings, denizens of deserts and
woods, with a hooked nose, a horned forehead, and goat feet. He translated
the Hebrew by fig-faun, adding to the original the adjective ficarii,
possibly following in this the pagan idea which, supposing that figs incline
to lust, regarded fig-groves a well fitted abode for fauns. The same Hebrew
word is rendered Is., xiii, 22 by owls, and Is., xxxiv, 14, by monsters,
which shows a great perplexity on the part of the translators. The true
meaning being "howlers", seems to point out the jackal, called the "howler"
by the Arabs.
FLEA, spoken of I K., xxiv, 15; xxvi, 20, as the
most insignificant cause of trouble that may befall a man.
FLOCK. — The flocks of Palestine include generally both sheep and goats:
"The sheep eat only the fine herbage, whereas the goats browse on what the
sheep refuse. They pasture and travel together in parallel columns, but
seldom intermingle more closely, and at night they always classify
themselves. The goats are for the most part black, the sheep white, dappled
or piebald, forming a very marked contrast . . ." (Tristram). The shepherd
usually leads the flock, calling tIme sheep by their names from time to
time; in his footsteps follows an old he-goat, whose stately bearing affords
to the natives matter for several comparisons; the Arabs, indeed to this
day, call a man of stately mien a "he-goat". The shepherd at sunset waters
his flock, folds them ordinarily in some of the many caves found on every
hillside, and with trained dogs guards them at night.
FLY. — Two Hebrew words are thus translated:
(1) 'ãrõbh is the name of
the Egyptian fly of the fourth plague; this name, a collective one, though
translated by dog-fly in the Septuagint, seems to signify all kinds of
flies. Flies are at all times an almost insufferable nuisance; the common
house-fly, with the gnat, vexes men, while gad-flies of every description
tsetse, œstru, hippoboscida, tabanus marocanus, etc., infest animals.
(2) Zebhûbh is likewise the collective name of the Palestinian fly, but
more specifically of the gad-fly.
Though a trifle less annoying than in Egypt, flies were, however, deemed a
plague severe enough in Palestine to induce the natives to have recourse
to the power of a special god, Bá'ál-zebhûbh, the master of the flies,
that they and their cattle be protected against that scourge.
FOWL. — This word which, in
its most general sense, applies to anything that flies in the air (Gen., i,
20, 21), and which frequently occurs in the Bible with this meaning, is also
sometimes used in a narrower sense, as, for instance, III K., iv, 23, where
it stands for all fatted birds that may be reckoned among the delicacies of
a king's table; so likewise Gen., xv, 11 and Is., xviii, 6, where it means
birds of prey in general. In this latter signification allusions are made to
their habit of perching on bare or dead trees, or of flocking together in
great numbers.
FOX. — Thus is usually rendered the Hebrew, shû'ãl, which signifies both fox
and jackal, even the latter more often than the former. The fox, however,
was well known by the ancient Hebrews, and its cunning was as proverbial
among them as among us (Ezech., xiii, 4; Luke, xiii, 32).
FROG. — Though not rare in Palestine, this word is only mentioned in the O.T.
in connection with the second plague of Egypt. Two species of frogs are
known to live in the Holy Land: the rana esculenta, or common edible frog,
and the hyla arborea, or green tree-frog. The former throngs wherever there
is water. In Apoc., xvi, 13, the frog is the emblem of unclean spirits.
GAZELLE (Hebr., çebî, i. e. beauty) has been known at all times as one of
the most graceful of all animals. Several species still exist in Palestine.
Its different characteristics, its beauty of form, its swiftness, its
timidity, the splendour and meekness of its eye, are in the present time, as
well as during the age of the O.T. writers, the subjects of many
comparisons. However, the name of tIme gazelle is scarcely, if at all, to be
found in the Bible; in its stead we read roe, hart, or deer. Like a few
other names of graceful and timid animals, the word gazelle has always been
in the East a term of endearment in love. It was also a woman's favourite
name (I Par., viii, 9; IV K., xii, 1; II Par., xxiv, 1; Acts, ix, 36).
GECKO. — Probable translation of the 'anãqah of the Hebrews, generally
rendered in our versions by shrew-mouse, for which it seems it should be
substituted. The gecko, ptyodactylus gecko of the naturalists, is common in
Palestine.
GIER-EAGLE. — So does A.V. render the Hebrew, rãhãm (Lev., xi, 18) or
rãhãmah (Deut., xiv, 17). By the gier-eagle, the Egyptian vulture (neophron
percnopterus), or Pharao's hen, is generally believed to be signified.
However, whether this bird should be really recognized in the Hebrew, rãhãm,
is not easy to decide; for while, on the one hand, the resemblance of the
Arabic name for the Egyptian vulture with the Hebrew word rãhãm seems fairly
to support the identification, the mention of the rãhãm in a list of wading
birds, on the other hand, casts a serious doubt on its correctness.
GIRAFFE. — See CAMELOPARDALUS (sup.).
GNAT. — The same insect called sciniph in Ex., viii, 16, 17 and Ps. civ (Hebr.,
cv), 31, and known under the familiar name of mosquito, culex pipiens, is
taken in the New Testament as an example of a trifle.
GOAT. — Though the sacred writers spoke of the ewe more frequently than of
the goat, yet with the latter they were very well acquainted. It was indeed,
especially in the hilly regions east of the Jordan, an important item in the
wealth of the Israelites. The goat of Palestine, particularly the capra
membrica, affords numerous illustrations and allusions, Its remarkably long
ears are referred to by Amos, iii, 12; its glossy dark hair furnishes a
graphic comparison to the author of Cant., iv, 1; vi, 4; this hair was woven
into a strong cloth; the skin tanned with the hair on served to make bottles
for milk, wine, oil, water, etc. The kid was an almost essential part of a
feast. The goat is mentioned in Dan,, viii, 5, as the symbol of the
Macedonian empire. The grand Gospel scene of the separation of the just and
the wicked on the last day is borrowed from the customs of the shepherds in
the East.
GOAT, WILD, Job, xxxix, 1; I K., xxiv, 3, where it is an equivalent for yã'
él, translated, Ps., ciii (Hebr., Civ), 18, by hart, Prov., v, 19, by fawn,
is most probably the ibex syriacus, a denizen of the rocky summits [Ps. ciii
(Hebr., civ), 18]. It was regarded as a model of grace (Prov., v, 19), and
its name, Jahel, Jahala, was frequently given to persons (Judges, v, 6; I,
Esd., ii, 56, etc.).
GRASSHOPPER, is probably the best rendering for the Hebrew, hãgãb [Lev., xi,
22; Num,, xiii, 34 (Hebr., xiii, 33); Is., xl, 22; Eccles., xii, 5, etc.],
as in the A.V., if the Hebrew word be interpreted "hopper" as Credner
suggests; the D.V. uses the word locust. The grasshopper is one of the
smaller species of the locust tribe.
GRIFFON. — So D.V., Lev., xi, 13 (whereas Deut., xiv, 12, we read "grype")
translates the Hebrew, pérés, the "breaker" whereby the lammergeyer or
bearded vulture, gypœtus barbatus, the largest and most magnificent of the
birds of prey is probably intended. The opinion that the Bible here speaks
of the fabulous griffon, i. e. a monster begotten from a lion and an eagle,
and characterized by the beak, neck, and wings of an eagle and the legs and
rump of a lion, is based only on a misinterpretation of the word.
GRIFFON-VULTURE, a probable translation in several cases of the Hebrew,
néshér, regularly rendered by eagle. This most majestic bird (gyps fulvus),
the type, as it seems, of the eagle-headed figures of Assyrian sculpture, is
most likely referred to in Mich., i, 16, on account of its bare neck and
head.
GRYPE, Deut., xiv, 12. See GRIFFON (sup.).
HAJE. — See Asp (sup.)
HARE. — Mentioned Lev., xi, 6; Deut., xiv, 7, in the list of the unclean
quadrupeds. Several species live in Palestine: lepus syriacus in the north;
lepus judœœ in the south and the Jordan valley, together with lepus
sinaiticus, lepus œgyptiacus and lepus isabellinus, The statement of the
Bible that the hare "cheweth the cud" is a classical difficulty. It should
be noticed that this is not the reason why the hare is reckoned among the
unclean animals; but the cause thereof should be sought for in the fact that
though it chews the cud, which certainly it appears to do, it does not
divide the hoof.
HART and HIND. — Either the fallow-deer, still occasionally found in the
Holy Land, or the red deer, now extinct, or the deer generally. It has
afforded many illustrations to time Biblical writers and poets, especially
by its fleetness (Cant., ii, 9; Is., xxxv, 6), its surefootedness [Ps. xvii
(Hebr., xviii), 34; Hab., iii, 19], its affection (Prov., v, 19), and its
habit of hiding its young (Job, xxxix, 1).
HAWK (Hebr., neç) is, in the Scriptures, a general denomination including,
with the falcon, all the smaller birds of prey, the kestrel, merlin,
sparrow-hawk, hobby, and others, most common in Palestine.
NIGHT-HAWK, A.V. for Hebrew, táhmãs, more exactly translated in D.V. by owl;
some bird of the latter kind is indeed undoubtedly intended, probably the
barn owl (strix flammea).
SPARROW-HAWK (falco nisus), one of the hawks of Palestine, so common that it
might be regarded, in reference to the Bible, as the hawk par excellence.
HEDGEHOG. — See Ericius (sup.).
HEN, See COCK (sup.).
HERON. — Mentioned Lev., xi, 19, in the list of unclean birds, but probably
in the wrong place in the D.V.; heron, indeed, should be substituted for
charadrion, whereas in the same verse it stands for stork, as the A.V.
correctly states it.
HIND. — See HART. (sup.).
HIPPOPOTAMUS. — See BEHEMOTH (sup.).
HOBBY (falco subbuteo). See HAWK (sup.).
HOOPOE. — See HOUP (inf.).
HORNET (Hebr., çíre'ah; vespa crabro). — One of the largest and most
pugnacious wasps; when disturbed they attack cattle and horses; their sting
is very severe, capable not only of driving men and cattle to madness, but
even of killing them (Exod., xxiii, 28; Deut., vii, 20; Jos., xxiv, 12).
HORSE. — The horse is never mentioned in Scripture in connection with the
patriarchs; the first time the Bible speaks of it, it is in reference to the
Egyptian army pursuing the Hebrews, During the epoch of the conquest and of
Judges, we hear of horses only with the Chanaanean troops, and later on with
the Philistines, The hilly country inhabited by the Israelites was not
favourable to the use of the horse; this is the reason why the Bible speaks
of horses only in connection with war. David and Solomon established a
cavalry and chariot force; but even this, used exclusively for wars of
conquest, seems to have been looked upon as a dangerous temptation to kings,
for the Deuteronomy legislation forbids them to multiply horses for
themselves. The grand description of the war-horse in Job is classical; it
will be noticed, however, that its praises are more for the strength than
for the swiftness of the horse. The prophet Zacharias depicts (ix, 10) the
Messianic age as one in which no hostilities will be heard of; then all
warlike apparel being done away with, the horse will serve only for peaceful
use.
HOUP (Lev., xi, 19; Deut., xiv, 18). — The analogy of the Hebrew with the
Syriac and Coptic for the name of this bird makes the identification
doubtless, although some, after the example of the A.V., see in the Hebrew
dûkhîpháth, the lapwing. The Egyptians worshipped the houp and made it the
emblem of Horus.
HYENA. — This word is not to be found in any of the English translations of
the Bible; it occurs twice in the Septuagint, Jer., xii, 9, and Ecclus.,
xiii, 22, being in both places the rendering for the Hebrew name çãbhûá. The
hyenas are very numerous in the Holy Land, where they are most active
scavengers; they feed upon dead bodies, and sometimes dig the tombs open to
get at the corpses therein buried. Two Hebrew names are supposed to
designate the hyena: (1) çãbhûá'. This word, which has been interpreted
"speckled bird", Jer., xii, 9, by modern translators following the Vulgate,
has been rendered by "holy man", Ecclus., xiii, 22. Despite the authorities
that favour the above mentioned translation of Jer., xii, 9, the consistency
of the Septuagint on the one hand, and on the other the parallelism in the
latter passage, in addition to the analogy with the Arabic and rabbinical
Hebrew names for the hyena, fairly support the identification of the çãbhûá'
with this animal. (2) çíyyím, rendered in divers manners in different
places: wild beasts, Is., xiii, 21; demons, Is., xxxiv, 14; dragons, Ps.
lxxiii (hebr., lxxiv), 14; Jer., 1, 39.
IBEX. — See GOAT, WILD (sup.).
IBIS. — The word occurs twice in the D.V. (Lev., xi, 17; Is., xxxiv, 11) as
an equivalent for yánshûph; some good authorities, however, though the
yánshûph is mentioned among wading birds, do not admit the above
identification and think that the Egyptian eagle-owl (bubo ascalaphus),
which they term great owl, is spoken of. The ibis was worshipped by the
Egyptians as the emblem of Thot.
ICHNEUMON. — See WEASEL (inf.).
IRCHIN. — D.V. Ps. ciii, 18. See CHEROGRILLUS (sup.).
JACKAL. — Frequently alluded to in Holy Writ, though the name is read
neither in the D.V. nor in any of the western translations, probably because
the animal, however common in Africa and south-western Asia is unknown in
European countries. The name regularly substituted for jackal is fox. The
jackal seems to be designated in Hebrew by three different names: shû'ãl,
"the digger"; 'íyyîm, "the howlers"; and tãn, "the stretcher", although we
are unable to state the differences marked by these three names, Numerous
references may be found throughout the Bible to the jackal's howlings and
gregarious habits.
JERBOA. — This little animal, at least four species of which abide in Syria,
is nowhere nominally mentioned in the Bible; it must, nevertheless, very
probably be reckoned among the unclean animals indicated under the general
name of mouse.
KESTREL. — A slender hawk, most likely one of the species intended by Lev.,
xi, 16, for it is very common in Palestine. The remark of Job, xxxix, 26,
strikingly points out the tinnulus cenchris, one of the Palestinian
kestrels.
KID. — See GOAT. (sup.).
KINE. — See CATTLE (sup.).
KITE. — As suggested by the analogy with the Arabic, the black kite (milvus
nigrans) is probably meant by Hebr. dã'ah or dáyyah (Lev., xi, 14; Deut.,
xiv, 13; Is., xxxiv, 15), interpreted kite in the D.V.; it is one of the
most common of the scavenger birds of prey of the country, and for this
reason, is carefully protected by the villagers. Other kinds of kites, in
particular the milvus regalis, are common in Palestine.
LAMB. — The Paschal Lamb was both a commemoration of the deliverance from
the bondage in Egypt, and a prophetic figure of the Son of God sacrificed to
free His people from their slavery to sin and death. See EWE. (sup.).
LAMIA (Is., xxxiv, 14). — Is a translation of Hebrew,
lîlîth; according to the old popular legends, the lamia was a feminine
bloodthirsty monster, devouring men and children. In the above cited place,
some kind of owl, either the screech or the hooting owl, is very probably
meant.
LAMMERGEYER (gypœtus barbatus) very likely signified by the Hebrew, pérés,
translated by griffon in D.V.
LARUS. — Lev., xi; 16; Deut., xiv, 15. See CUCKOO (sup.).
HORSE-LEECH (Prov., xxx, 15). — Both the medicinal leech and the horse-leech
are frequently found in the streams, pools, and wells; they often attach
themselves to the inside of the lips and nostrils of drinking animals,
thereby causing them much pain.
LEOPARD. — Under this name come a certain number of carnivorous animals more
or less resembling the real leopard (felis leopardus), namely felis jubata,
felis lynx, felis uncia, etc., all formerly numerous throughout Palestine,
and even now occasionally found, especially in the woody districts. The
leopard is taken by the Biblical writers as a type of cunning (Jer., v, 6;
Osee, xiii, 7), of fierceness, of a conqueror's sudden swoop (Dan., vii, 6;
Hab., i, 8). Its habit of lying in wait by a well or a village is repeatedly
alluded to.
LEVIATHAN. — The word Leviathan (Hebrew, líweyãthãn),
which occurs six times in the Hebrew Bible, seems to have puzzled not a
little all ancient translators. The D.V. has kept this name, Job, iii, 8;
xl, 20; Is., xxvii, 1; it is rendered by dragon Ps. lxxiii (Hebr., lxxiv),
14, and ciii (Hebr., civ), 26; The word leviathan means:
(1) crocodile (Job, xl, 20
and Ps, lxxiii, 14);
(2) a sea-monster (Ps. ciii, 26, Is., xxvii, 1);
(3) possibly the Draco constellation (Job, iii, 8).
LION. — Now extinct in Palestine and in the surrounding countries, the
lion was common there during the O.T. times; hence the great number of
words in the Hebrew language to signify it; under one or another of these
names it is mentioned a hundred and thirty times in the Scriptures, as the
classical symbol of strength, power, courage, dignity, ferocity. Very
likely as the type of power, it became the ensign of the tribe of Juda; so
was it employed by Solomon in the decoration of the temple and of the
king's house. For the same reason, Apoc., v, 5, represents Jesus Christ as
the lion of the tribe of Juda. The craft and ferocity of the lion, on the
other hand, caused it to be taken as an emblem of Satan (I Pet., v, 8) and
of the enemies of the truth (II Tim., iv, 17).
LIZARD. — Immense is the
number of these reptiles in Palestine; no less than forty-four species are
found there, Among those mentioned in the Bible we may cite:
(1) The Letã'ah, general
name of the lizard, applied especially to the common lizard, the green
lizard, the blind worm, etc.;
(2) the chõmét, or sand-lizard;
(3) the çãb, or dább of the Arabs (uromastix spinipes);
(4) the kõâh, the divers kinds of monitor (psammosaurus scincus,
hydrosaurus niloticus, etc.);
(5) the 'anãqah or gecko;
(6) the semãmîth or stellio.
LOCUST. — One of the worst
scourges of the East, very often referred to in Holy Writ. As many as nine
Hebrew words signify either the locust in general or some species:
(1) 'árbéh, probably the
locusta migratoria;
(2) gãzãm, possibly the locust in its larva state, the palmerworm;
(3) Gôbh, the locust in general;
(4) chagab, most likely the grasshopper;
(5) hãsîl, "the destroyer", perhaps the locust in its caterpillar state,
in which it is most destructive;
(6) hárgõl, translated in the D.V. ophiomachus;
(7) yéléq, the stinging locust;
(8) çelãçâl possibly the cricket; and
(9) sôl'ãm, rendered by attacus, or bald locust (probably the truxalis).
Unlike other insects, locusts are most voracious in every stage of their
existence.
LOUSE. — According to some
this species of vermin was one of the features of the third Egyptian plague.
It is but too common through all eastern countries.
MILDEW. — A word occurring a certain number of times in the D.V. as an
equivalent for Hebrew, hãsîl, which probably means a kind of locust.
MOLE. — Two Hebrew words are thus rendered, The first, tînshéméth (Lev., xi,
30), would, according to good authorities, rather signify the chameleon;
with the second, haphárperôth (Is., ii, 20), some burrowing animal is
undoubtedly intended, The mole of Syria is not the common mole of Europe,
talpa europœa, but the mole-rat (spalax typhlus), a blind burrowing rodent.
MOSQUITO. — See GNAT. (sup.).
MOTH. — Is in the D.V. besides Is., xiv, 11, where it stands for rímmah,
"worms", the common rendering for two words: 'ãsh (Job, iv, 19), and sãs
(Is., li, 8), the exact meaning of the former is uncertain, whereas by the
latter the clothes moth is meant.
MOUFLON. — See CHAMOIS, CAMELOPARDALUS (sup.).
MOUSE. — This word seems to be a general one, including the various rats,
dormice, jerboas, and hamsters, about twenty-five species of which exist in
the country.
MULE. — In spite of the enactment of the Law (Lev., xix, 19), the Israelites
early in the course of their history possessed mules; these animals, in a
hilly region such as the Holy Land, were for many purposes preferable to
horses and stronger than asses; they were employed both for domestic and
warlike use.
OPHIOMACHUS. — See LOCUST. (sup.).
ORYX. — See ANTELOPE (sup.).
OSPREY (Hebr., 'óznîyyah). — The fishing eagle, which name probably
signifies all the smaller eagles.
OSSIFRAGE. — See LAMMERGEYER (sup.).
OSTRICH. — Still occasionally found in the southeastern deserts of
Palestine, the ostrich, if we are to judge from the many mentions made of
it, was well known among the Hebrews, The beauty of its plumage, its
fleetness, its reputed stupidity, its leaving its eggs on the sand and
hatching them by the sun's heat are repeatedly alluded to.
OWL. — A generic name under which many species of nocturnal birds are
designated, some having a proper name in the Hebrew, some others possessing
none. Among the former we may mention the little owl (athene persica), the
Egyptian eagle-owl (bubo ascalephus), the great owl of some authors, called
ibis in the D.V., the screech or hooting owl, probably the lîlîth of Is.,
xxxiv, and the lamia of St. Jerome and the D.V.; the barn owl (stryx flammea),
possibly corresponding to the táhmãs of the Hebrews and rendered by
night-hawk in the A.V.; and the qîppôz of Is., xxxiv, 15, as yet
unidentified.
Ox. — See CATTLE (sup.).
OX, WILD, Is., hi, 20, probably antilope bubalis. See ANTELOPE (sup.).
PALMERWORM (Hebr., gãzãm) A general word for the locust, very likely in its
larva state.
PARTRIDGE. — Although very common in the Holy Land, the partridge is
mentioned only three times in the sacred literature: I K., xxvi, 20 alludes
to chasing it on the mountains; Jer., xvii, 11, to the robbing of its eggs;
Ecclus., xi, 32, to the keeping a decoy partridge. Two kinds of partridges
are known to abide in the hilly resorts of Palestine; the francolin inhabits
the plains, and various sand-grouse are found in the deserts.
PEACOCK. — The texts where it is spoken of (III K., x, 22; II Par., ix, 21)
clearly indicate that it was not indigenous to Palestine, but imported,
probably from India.
PELICAN, D.V., Ps., ci (Hebr., cii), 7, for Hebr. qã'áth, in other places is
rendered by bittern, for which it might be advantageously substituted.
Pelicans are usually found about marshes (Is., xxxiv, 11), and are in the
habit of sitting for hours in sandy desolate places [Ps., ci (Hebr., cii),
7; Soph., ii, 14] after they have gorged.
PHŒNIX might possibly be read instead of palmtree (Hebr. hôl) in Job, xxix,
18, where the belief in its immortality seems referred to; however the sense
adopted by D.V., after Vulgate and Septuagint, should not be slighted.
PIGEON. — See DOVE (sup.).
PLUNGER. — See CORMORANT (sup.).
PORCUPINE. — Believed by some, on account of a certain analogy of the Hebrew
qîppõd with the Arabic name of this animal, to he spoken of in the Bible.
See ERICIUS (sup.).
PORPHYRION is in Vulgate and D.V. (Lev., xi, 18), the equivalent for the
Hebrew, rãhãm, translated in the Septuagint by "swan"; in the Greek version,
porphyrion stands for the Hebrew, tínshéméth, interpreted "swan" by the
Latin and English Bibles. The hypothesis that the Greek translators used a
Hebrew text in which the two words rãhãm and tínshéméth stood contrariwise
to their present order in the Massoretic text, might account for this
difference. This hypothesis is all the more probable because in Deut., xiv,
17, porphyrion seems to be the Greek translation for rãhãm. Whatever this
may be, whether the porphyrion, or purple water-hen (porphyrio antiquorum),
or the Egyptian vulture, should be identified with the rãhãm remains
uncertain. See GIER-EAGLE (sup.).
PYGARG (Deut., xiv, 5). — This word, a mere adaptation from the Greek, means
"white-rumped", a character common to many species, though the antilope
addax is possibly signified by the Hebrew word dîshõn.
QUAIL. — The description given Ex., xvi, 11-13; Num., xi, 31, 32; Ps.,
lxxvii (Hebr., lxxviii) 27-35, and civ (Hebr., cv), 40, the references to
their countless flocks, their low flying, their habit of alighting on land
in the morning, together with the analogy of the Hebrew and Arabic names,
make it certain that the common quail (coturnix vulgaris) is intended.
RABBIT (Prov., xxx, 26). — A mistranslation for coney or daman. See
CHEROGRILLUS, (sup.).
RAM. — See EWE, FLOCK (sup.).
RAVEN. — The Bible includes under this generic name a certain number of
birds having more or less resemblance with the raven, such as the magpie,
the jay, etc. The raven, eight species of which are found in Palestine, is
by far the most common of all the birds of that country, where it is with
buzzards, vultures, dogs, jackals, and hyenas, an active scavenger. Its
plumage is glossy black, and its habits are frequently alluded to in Holy
Writ, for instance feeding on carcasses, wandering for its precarious meals,
picking out the eyes of the newly-dropped or weakly animals, resorting to
desolate places, etc. The raven, when no other food is nigh, not
unfrequently picks out grains freshly sown; hence its surname of
seed-picker, spermologos, which, later on became a synonym for ragamuffin.
This name, applied to St. Paul by his sceptical listeners of Athens, has
become, through a mistranslation, "word-sower" in our Bibles (Acts, xvii,
18).
NIGHT-RAVEN, the equivalent in Ps. ci (Hebr., cii), 7, of the Hebrew word
translated Lev., xi, 17, by screech-owl, seems to mean the blue thrush (petrocynela
cyanea), a well-known solitary bird of the country, which is fond of sitting
alone on a roof or a rock.
RHINOCEROS, Num., xxiii, 22, stands for Hebrew, re'em, and should
consequently be rendered by aurochs.
RINGTAIL. — So D.V., Deut., xiv, 13, translates rã'ah, possibly substituted
by a scribe's error for dã'ah, and very likely meaning the black kite (milvus
migrans).
SATYR. — So is the Hebrew sã'îr rendered Is., xiii, 21, and xxxiv, 14, by
R.V. (D.V.: "hairy one"). The same word in Lev., xvii, 7, and II Par., xi,
15, is translated "devils" in all English Bibles. Sã'îr usually signifies
the he-goat. In the latter passages this sense is clearly inapplicable; it
Seems hardly applicable in the former. The writers of Leviticus, and II
Paralipomenon possibly intended some representation of the same description
as the goat-headed figures of the Egyptian Pantheon. Concerning the sã'îr
mentioned in Isaias, no satisfactory explanation has as yet been given.
SCARLET. — See COCHINEAL (sup.).
SCINIPH. — See GNAT (sup.).
SCORPION. — Very common in all hot, dry, stony places; is taken as an emblem
of the wicked.
SEA-GULL. — Its different kinds are probably signified by the word
translated larus. See CUCKOO (sup.).
SEAL. — See BADGER (sup.).
SEA-MONSTER, Lam., iv, 3, probably means such animals as the whale,
porpoise, dugong, etc.
SERPENT. — A generic term whereby all ophidia are designated; ten names of
different species of snakes are given in the Bible.
SHREW. — So does D.V. translate the Hebr. 'anãqah, which however means
rather some kind of lizard, probably the gecko.
SIREN, Is., xiii, 22, a translation for Hebrew tán, which, indicates an
animal dwelling in ruins, and may generally be rendered by jackal. No other
resemblance than a verbal one should be sought between this tán and the
fabulous being, famous by its allurements, called Siren by the ancient
poets.
SNAIL should be read instead of wax, Ps., lvii (Hebr., lviii) 9, to
translate the Hebrew, shábelûl. Unlike the snails of northern climates which
hibernate, those of Palestine sleep in summer. The Psalmist alludes "to the
fact that very commonly, when they have secured themselves in some chink of
the rocks for their summer sleep, they are still exposed to the sun rays,
which gradually evaporate and dry up the whole of the body, till the animal
is shrivelled to a thread, and, as it were, melted away" (Tristram).
SPARROW. — The Hebrew word çíppôr, found over forty times, is a general name
for all small passerine birds, of which there exist about a hundred and
fifty species in the Holy Land.
SPIDER. — An insect living by millions in Palestine, where several hundred
species have been distinguished. Its web affords a most popular illustration
for frail and ephemeral undertakings (Job, viii, 14; Is., lix, 5); in three
passages, however, the translators seem to have wrongly written spider for
moth [Ps. xxxviii (Hebr., xxxix), 12], sigh [Ps. lxxxix (xc), 9], and pieces
(Os., viii, 6).
STORK. — The Hebrew word hasîdhah, erroneously rendered "heron" by the Douay
translators, Lev., xi, 19, alludes to the well-known affection of the stork
for its young. Several passages have reference to this bird, its periodical
migrations (Jer., viii, 7), its nesting in fir-trees, its black pinions
stretching from its white body (Zach., v, 9; D.V., kite; but the stork,
hasîdhah, is mentioned in the Hebrew text). Two kinds, the white and the
black stork, live in Palestine during the winter.
SWALLOW. — Two words are so rendered: derôr, "the swift flyer", which means
the chimney swallow and other species akin to it [Ps. lxxxiii (Hebr., lxxxiv),
4; D.V., turtle; Prov., xxvi, 2; D.V., sparrow], whereas sûs or sîs may be
translated by "swift", this bird being probably intended in Is., xxxviii,
14, and Jer., viii, 7.
SWAN. — Mentioned only in the list of unclean birds (Lev., xi, 18; Deut.,
xiv, 16). The swan having always been very rare in Syria, there was little
need of forbidding to eat its flesh; by the Hebrew tínshéméth, some other
bird might possibly be designated.
SWINE. — The most abhorred of all animals among the Jews; hence the
swineherd's was the most degrading employment (Luke, xv, 15; cf. Matt.,
viii, 32). Swine are very seldom kept in Palestine.
TIGER, Job, iv, 11 (Hebr., láyísh), should be "lion".
TURTLE. — See DOVE (sup.).
UNICORN. — See AUROCHS (sup.).
URCHIN, Soph., ii, 14. See ERICIUS (sup.).
VIPER. — See ASP (sup.).
VULTURE. — So does D.V. render the Hebrew, 'áyyah, Lev., xi, 14; Deut., xiv,
13; Job, xxviii, 7. As has been suggested above, the text of Job at least,
seems to allude to the kite rather than to the vulture. Several kinds of
vultures are nevertheless referred to in the Bible; so, for instance, the
bearded vulture (gypœtus barbatus), called griffon in the D.V.; the
griffon-vulture (gyps fulvus), the Egyptian vulture (neophron percnopterus),
etc. In the biblical parlance vultures are oftentimes termed eagles.
WATERHEN. — See PORPHYRION (sup.).
WEASEL, Lev., xi, 29, must be regarded as a general name, probably
designating, besides the weasel proper, the polecat and ichneumon, all very
common in the Holy Land.
WHALE (Gen., i, 21). — Tânnîm would perhaps be better translated generally
"sea-monster"; porpoises and dugongs were certainly known to the Hebrews.
WOLF. — Frequently mentioned in the Scriptures as a special foe to flocks (Ecclus.,
xiii, 21; Matt., vii, 15), and an emblem of treachery, ferocity, and
bloodthirstiness. Wolves usually prowl at night around the sheepfolds, and,
though fewer in numbers than jackals, are much more harmful. The tribe of
Benjamin, owing to its warlike character, was compared to a wolf.
WORM. — In English the translation for two Hebrew words: rímmah [Exod., xvi,
24; Is., xiv, 11; (Job, vii, 5, A.V.)]; and tólá' (Exod., xvi, 20, etc.);
these two Hebrew words are general; the former designates particularly all
living organisms generated and swarming in decaying or rotten substances;
the latter includes not only worms, but also such insects as caterpillars,
centipedes, etc.
CARPENTER, Scripture Natural History (London, 1828);
HARRIS, Natural History of the Bible (ed. Conder, London, 1833-34);
WOOD, Animals of the Bible (London, 1883); TRISTRAM, Natural
History of the Bible (London, 1883); The Fauna and Flora of Palestine
(London, 1889); The Animal Creation in the Bible, in Aids to the
Student of the Bible (London, 1898); HART, The Animals Mentioned in
the Bible (London, 1888); KNIGHT, Bible Plants and Animals
(London, 1889); BOCHART, Hierozoicon (London, 1663, 1712);
ROSENMÜLLER, Biblische Naturalgeschichte (Leipzig, 1820); SCHEGG AND
WIRTHMÜLLER, Biblische Archäologie (Freiburg, 1887); CULTRERA,
Fauna biblica (Palermo, 1880); HAGEN, Lex. bibl. (Paris, 1905),
I; Dictionaries of the Bible.
Resource List - Entry taken
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Encyclopedia, Volume II. Copyright ©1907 by Robert Appleton Company.
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